### Biography and Contributions of Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288 CE)
**Biography:**
Ibn al-Nafis, born in Damascus, was a pioneering Arab physician and scholar of the 13th century. He is best known for his groundbreaking work in the field of medicine, particularly for his discovery of the pulmonary circulation of blood. Ibn al-Nafis was a prominent figure in the Islamic Golden Age, contributing significantly to medical science and practice. He studied under notable scholars and worked as a physician at the renowned Al-Mansuri Hospital in Cairo.
His most influential work, “Kitab al-Shamil fi al-Tibb” (The Complete Book of Medicine), compiled extensive medical knowledge and introduced innovative concepts that shaped the course of medical science in the centuries that followed.
**Major Contributions and Discoveries:**
1. **Pulmonary Circulation:**
- **Discovery of Pulmonary Circulation:** Ibn al-Nafis is credited with the first accurate description of the pulmonary circulation of blood, the process by which blood flows from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart. In his commentary on Galen’s “On the Natural Faculties,” he challenged Galen’s theories and described how blood passes from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs before returning to the left ventricle. This was a crucial advancement in understanding human physiology.
- **Correction of Galenic Physiology:** Ibn al-Nafis refuted the prevailing Galenic model of blood circulation, which posited that blood moved through invisible pores in the heart's septum. His observations laid the foundation for later developments in cardiovascular physiology.
2. **Medical Texts and Innovations:**
- **Kitab al-Shamil fi al-Tibb (The Complete Book of Medicine):** In this extensive medical encyclopedia, Ibn al-Nafis compiled and expanded upon existing medical knowledge. The book covered a wide range of topics including diagnostics, treatments, and pharmacology, and was used as a reference in medical education and practice.
- **Detailed Medical Observations:** His works included detailed clinical observations and descriptions of various diseases, which advanced the understanding of medical conditions and treatments of his era.
3. **Philosophy and Medical Ethics:**
- **Ethical Approach to Medicine:** Ibn al-Nafis emphasized the ethical practice of medicine, stressing the importance of compassion, integrity, and professionalism in the medical field. His writings on medical ethics influenced the practice of medicine in both the Islamic world and medieval Europe.
4. **Ophthalmology:**
- **Studies in Ophthalmology:** Ibn al-Nafis conducted research in ophthalmology, studying the anatomy of the eye and diseases affecting vision. His observations and writings contributed to the early development of ophthalmic medicine.
5. **Influence on Later Scientists:**
- **Impact on Renaissance Medicine:** Ibn al-Nafis’ work on pulmonary circulation was not recognized in the Western world until the 16th century. His theories were later confirmed by European scientists such as Michael Servetus and William Harvey, highlighting the lasting impact of his discoveries on the development of modern medicine.
6. **Pharmacology:**
- **Pharmacological Innovations:** Ibn al-Nafis also made contributions to pharmacology by documenting the medicinal properties of various substances and developing new formulations for treating diseases. His work influenced the field of pharmacy and drug preparation.
